Volume 14, Issue 6 (Nov-Dec 2020)                   mljgoums 2020, 14(6): 1-9 | Back to browse issues page


XML Print


1- Department of Microbiology, Falavarjan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran
2- Department of Microbiology, Tonekabon Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tonekabon, Iran , Masoodghane@gmail.com
3- Department of Genetic, Tonekabon Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tonekabon, Iran
Abstract:   (2280 Views)
     Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease with a high incidence rate in many parts of the world due to the presence of various hosts for the pathogenic Leptospira. Tropical, subtropical and humid regions are suitable for long-term survival of the bacterium. Because of the temperate and humid climate, northern areas of Iran are suitable for pathogenic Leptospira and outbreak of the disease. Therefore, identification of infected areas is important from a public health and economic point of view. Previous studies show that the incidence rate of leptospirosis is increasing every year. Therefore, accurate diagnosis, control and prevention of this disease seem necessary through vaccination and raising public awareness, especially among high-risk groups. Today, diagnostic methods including immunofluorescence assay, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, microscopic agglutination test (MAT) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) are used to diagnose the leptospirosis. MAT is the gold standard test for the diagnosis of leptospirosis with extensive applications in Iran. Due to the importance of this disease and its high prevalence in recent years, the present study aimed to investigate the epidemiology and diagnosis of leptospirosis in Iran.
Full-Text [PDF 681 kb]   (965 Downloads)    
Research Article: Review Article | Subject: Microbiology
Received: 2019/09/22 | Accepted: 2020/03/7 | Published: 2020/10/29 | ePublished: 2020/10/29

References
1. Honarmand H. A decade, the incidence of leptospirosis in Guilan. Iran J Infect Dis. 2009; 47: 47-53. [Google Scholar]
2. World Health Organization. Human leptospirosis: Guidance for diagnosis, surveillance and control. Translate by Khaki P, Moradi Bidhendi S, Moradi Garavand M [Persian]. 1st ed. Tehran: Alavi Publication; 2003. 1-37.
3. Zavitsanou A, Babatsikou F. Leptospirosis: epidemiology and preventive measure. Health Sci J. 2008; 2(2): 75-82. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
4. Sakhaee E, Abdollahpour G, Bolourchi M, Sattari Tabrizi S. Comparison between microscopic agglutination test (MAT) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for detection of leptospiral antibodies in cattle. Comp Clin Path. 2009; 19(1): 5-9. doi:10.1007/s00580-009-0907-7. [DOI:10.1007/s00580-009-0907-7] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
5. Asuthkar S, Velineni S, Stadlmann J, Altmann F, Sritharan M. Expression and characterization of an iron-regulated hemin-binding protein, HbpA, from Leptospira interrogans serovar Lai. Infect Immun. 2007; 75(9): 4582-91. doi:10.1128/IAI.00324-07. [DOI:10.1128/IAI.00324-07] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
6. Trevejo RT, Rigau-Perez JG, Ashford DA, McClure EM, Jarquin-Gonzalez C, Amador JJ, et al. Epidemic leptospirosis associated with pulmonary hemorrhage-Nicaragua, 1995. J Infect Dis. 1998; 178(5): 1457-63. doi:10.1086/314424. [DOI:10.1086/314424] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
7. Lin YP, Chang YF. The C-terminal variable domain of LigB from Leptospira mediates binding to fibronectin. J Vet Sci. 2008; 9(2): 133-44. doi:10.4142/jvs.2008.9.2.133. [DOI:10.4142/jvs.2008.9.2.133] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
8. Sejvar J, Bancroft E, Winthrop K, Bettinger J, Bajani M, Bragg S, et al. Leptospirosis in "Eco-Challenge" athletes, Malaysian Borneo, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003; 9(6): 702-7. doi:10.3201/eid0906.020751. [DOI:10.3201/eid0906.020751] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
9. Babamahmoodi F, Salmani Mojaveri M, Babamahmoodi AR. Seroepidemiology of leptospirosis in workers of high risk occupation in Mazandaran province-Iran 2007-2008. J Mazandaran Univ Med Sci. 2009; 19(73): 10-5. [Persian] [Google Scholar]
10. Wong-Ekkabut J, Chadsuthi S, Triampo W, Doungchawee Galayanee TD, Krittanai C. Leptospirosis research: Response of pathogenic spirochete to ultraviolet-A irradiation. Afr J Biotechnol. 2009; 8: 3341-52. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
11. Babamahmoudi F. Human leptospirosis. Tehran: Agah press. 2008. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
12. McBride AJ, Athanazio DA, Reis MG, Ko AI. Leptospirosis. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2005; 18(5): 376-86. doi:10.1097/01.qco.0000178824.05715.2c. [DOI:10.1097/01.qco.0000178824.05715.2c] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
13. Aliyan SH, Babamahmoudi F, Najafi N, Qasemian R, Teymouri S, Shahbaznezhad L. Clinical and para clinical findings of leptospirosis in Mazandaran, June-September 2004. J Mazandaran Univ Med Sci. 2006; 16(53): 78-85. [Persian] [Google Scholar]
14. Ghane M, Rostampour YS. Isolation and identification of pathogenic and saprophytic Leptospira spp. From the rice fields of Tonekabon township using culture and PCR technique. Ann Biolog Res. 2013; 4(11): 123-8. [Google Scholar]
15. Soltani PR. Leptospirosis in pregnancy. J Nurs Sch Guilan. 2008; 19(61): 42-37. [Persian] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
16. Tabatabayi AH, Firouzi R. Disease of animal due to bacteria. Tehran University Press; 2001; 431-45. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
17. Jori F, Galvez H, Mendoza P, Cespedes M, Mayor P. Monitoring of leptospirosis seroprevalence in a colony of captive collared peccaries (Tayassu tajacu) from the Peruvian Amazon. Res Vet Sci. 2009; 86(3): 383-7. doi:10.1016/j.rvsc.2008.09.009. [DOI:10.1016/j.rvsc.2008.09.009] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
18. Brooks G, Carroll KC, Butel J, Morse S. Jawetz melnick and adelbergs medical microbiology. Translate by Rahimi MK, Athari A, et al. [Persian]. 23rd ed. Tehran: Aeej Publication; 2005; 538-41. [Google Scholar]
19. Joklik WK, Willett HP, Amos DB, Wilfert CM. Zinser microbiology. Tehran: Aeej Publication. 2003; 457-60. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
20. Levett PN. Leptospirosis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2001; 14(2): 296-326. doi:10.1128/CMR.14.2.296-326.2001. [DOI:10.1128/CMR.14.2.296-326.2001] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
21. Perret PC, Abarca VK, Dabanch PJ, Solari GV, Garcia CP, Carrasco LS, et al. Risk factors and frequency of positive antibodies for leptospirosis in a sub urban population near Santiago. Rev Med Chil. 2005; 133(4): 426-31. doi:/S0034-98872005000400005. [DOI:10.4067/S0034-98872005000400005] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
22. Honarmand HR, Mansour-Ghanaee F, Eshraghi S, Khorramizade MR, Abdollahpour GR. The epidemiology of leptospirosis in Guilan provice - 2003. J Gorgan Uni Med Sci. 2005; 7: 52-6. [Persian] [Google Scholar]
23. Levett PN. Leptospirosis: A forgotten zoonosis? Clin Appl Immunol Rev. 2004; 4(6): 435-48. doi:10.1016/j.cair.2004.08.001. [DOI:10.1016/j.cair.2004.08.001] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
24. Lau CL, Smythe LD, Craig SB, Weinstein P. Climate change, flooding, urbanisation and leptospirosis: Fuelling the fire? Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2010; 104(10): 631-8. doi:10.1016/j.trstmh.2010.07.002. [DOI:10.1016/j.trstmh.2010.07.002] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
25. Barkin RM, Guckian JC, Glosser JW. Infection by leptospira ballum: A laboratory-associated case. South Med J. 1974; 67(2): 155 passim. doi:10.1097/00007611-197402000-00007. [DOI:10.1097/00007611-197402000-00007] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
26. Tangkanakul W, Smits HL, Jatanasen S, Ashford DA. Leptospirosis: An emerging health problem in Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2005; 36(2): 281-8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
27. Ganoza CA, Matthias MA, Collins-Richards D, Brouwer KC, Cunningham CB, Segura ER, et al. Determining risk for severe leptospirosis by molecular analysis of environmental surface waters for pathogenic Leptospira. PLoS Med. 2006; 3(8): e308. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030308. [DOI:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030308] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
28. Haake DA. Molecular epidemiology of leptospirosis in the Amazon. PLoS Med. 2006; 3(8): e302. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030302. [DOI:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030302] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
29. Golsha R, Khodabakhshi B, Rahnama A. Leptospirosis in Golestan province in Iran (Reports of twelve cases). J Gorgan Uni Med Sci. 2007; 9(2): 76-80. [Persian] [Google Scholar]
30. Rafiei A, Hedayati Zadeh-Omran A, Babamahmoodi F, Alizadeh Navaei R, Valadan R. Review of Leptospirosis in Iran. J Mazandaran Univ Med Sci. 2012; 22(94): 114-25. [Persian] [Google Scholar]
31. Firouzi R, Vandyousefi J. A serological survey on bovine leptospirosis in Shiraz, Iran. J Vet Res. 2000; 1(2): 118-23. [Persian] [Google Scholar]
32. Jafari SM, Vand Yousefi J, Azarvandi A. Evaluation of clinically suspected leptospirosis and identifying strains involved in bovine leptospira in the uromia city. Pajouhesh va Sazandeghi. 1997; 34: 120-2. [Persian] [Google Scholar]
33. Soltani Majd N, Darian EK, Khaki P, Bidhendi SM, Yahaghi E, Mirnejad R. Epidemiological patterns of Leptospira spp. among slaughterhouse workers in Zanjan- Iran. Asian Pac J Trop Dis. 2012; 2: S550-2. doi:10.1016/s2222-1808(12)60218-7. [DOI:10.1016/S2222-1808(12)60218-7] [Google Scholar]
34. Khaki P, Roohi Z, Moradi Bidhendi S. Application of micro agglutination test in detecting serovars of leptospira. J Gorgan Uni Med Sci. 2014; 16(3): 99-105. [Persian] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
35. Garooci Talebkhan M, Vandeyusefy J, Famileghadakchi H, Norouzian A. Seroepidemiology leptospiral contamination in dairy cattle farms around Mashhad staff. J Vet Res. 2003; 58(1): 89-94. [Google Scholar]
36. Bajani MD, Ashford DA, Bragg SL, Woods CW, Aye T, Spiegel RA, et al. Evaluation of four commercially available rapid serologic tests for diagnosis of leptospirosis. J Clin Microbiol. 2003; 41(2): 803-9. doi:10.1128/jcm.41.2.803-809.2003. [DOI:10.1128/JCM.41.2.803-809.2003] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
37. Babakhani S, Maleki S, Baharvand M, Abdollahpour G. A study of serum outbreak of infection with various serovars of Leptospira among rice farmers of Visan in the Lorestan province. Sci Res Quar Period Lorestan Med Sci Univ. 2016; 18(2): 29 - 37. [Persian]
38. Abdollahpour G, Ramin A, Sanajou D. Seroinvestigation of buffaloes leptospirosis in Urmia district. Pub livestock Sci Res. 2016; 26(2): 59 -68. [Persian]
39. Honarmand HR, Mansour Ghanaei F, Heidarzadeh A, Asmar M. Isolation and Serotyping of endemic leptospires of eastern part of flat area of Guilan province, Iran. J Gorgan Uni Med Sci. 2009; 11(3): 53-9. [Persian] [Google Scholar]
40. Halliday JEB, Knobel DL, Allan KJ, de CBBM, Handel I, Agwanda B, et al. Urban leptospirosis in Africa: A cross-sectional survey of Leptospira infection in rodents in the Kibera urban settlement, Nairobi, Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2013; 89(6): 1095-102. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.13-0415. [DOI:10.4269/ajtmh.13-0415] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
41. Adler B, Faine S, Christopher WL, Chappel RJ. Development of an improved selective medium for isolation of leptospires from clinical material. Vet Microbiol. 1986; 12(4): 377-81. doi:10.1016/0378-1135(86)90087-8. [DOI:10.1016/0378-1135(86)90087-8] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
42. Vijayachari P, Sugunan AP, Umapathi T, Sehgal SC. Evaluation of darkground microscopy as a rapid diagnostic procedure in leptospirosis. Indian J Med Res. 2001; 114: 54-8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
43. Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R. Mandell, douglas and bennett's principle and practice of infectious diseases. 6th ed. Philadelphia, USA: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone; 2005. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
44. World Health Organization. Human leptospirosis: guidance for diagnosis, surveillance, and control. Geneva, Switzerland. 2003. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
45. Rostampour Yasouri S, Ghane M. A comparison between culture and PCR technique order to isolate and identify Leptospira spp. from environmental samples in the northern part of Iran. Eur J Exp Biol. 2014; 4(3): 606-11. [Google Scholar]
46. Saengjaruk P, Chaicumpa W, Watt G, Bunyaraksyotin G, Wuthiekanun V, Tapchaisri P, et al. Diagnosis of human leptospirosis by monoclonal antibody-based antigen detection in urine. J Clin Microbiol. 2002; 40(2): 480-9. doi:10.1128/jcm.40.3.480-489.2002. [DOI:10.1128/JCM.40.3.480-489.2002] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
47. Ahmad SN, Shah S, Ahmad FM. Laboratory diagnosis of leptospirosis. J Postgrad Med. 2005;51(3):195-200. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
48. Smits HL, Eapen CK, Sugathan S, Kuriakose M, Gasem MH, Yersin C, et al. Lateral-flow assay for rapid serodiagnosis of human leptospirosis. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2001; 8(1): 166-9. doi:10.1128/CDLI.8.1.166-169.2001. [DOI:10.1128/CDLI.8.1.166-169.2001] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
49. Richaud C, Margarita D, Baranton G, Saint Girons I. Cloning of genes required for amino acid biosynthesis from Leptospira interrogans serovar icterohaemorrhagiae. J Gen Microbiol. 1990; 136(4): 651-6. doi:10.1099/00221287-136-4-651. [DOI:10.1099/00221287-136-4-651] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
50. Adler B, Murphy AM, Locarnini SA, Faine S. Detection of specific anti-leptospiral immunoglobulins M and G in human serum by solid-phase enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J Clin Microbiol. 1980; 11(5): 452-7. doi: 10.1128/JCM.11.5.452-457.1980. [DOI:10.1128/JCM.11.5.452-457.1980] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
51. Dey S, Mohan CM, Ramadass P, Nachimuthu K. Diagnosis of leptospirosis by recombinant antigen based single serum dilution ELISA. Indian J Med Res. 2008; 128(2): 172-7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
52. Villumsen S, Pedersen R, Krogfelt KA, Jensen JS. Expanding the diagnostic use of PCR in leptospirosis: Improved method for DNA extraction from blood cultures. PLoS One. 2010; 5(8): e12095. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012095. [DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0012095] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
53. Vijayachari P, Sehgal SC. Recent advances in the laboratory diagnosis of leptospirosis and characterisation of leptospires. Indian J Med Microbiol. 2006; 24(4): 320-2. doi:10.4103/0255-0857.29408. [DOI:10.4103/0255-0857.29408] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
54. Kositanont U, Rugsasuk S, Leelaporn A, Phulsuksombati D, Tantitanawat S, Naigowit P. Detection and differentiation between pathogenic and saprophytic Leptospira spp. by multiplex polymerase chain reaction. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2007; 57(2): 117-22. doi:10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2006.07.014. [DOI:10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2006.07.014] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
55. Ahmed A, Engelberts MF, Boer KR, Ahmed N, Hartskeerl RA. Development and validation of a real-time PCR for detection of pathogenic leptospira species in clinical materials. PLoS One. 2009; 4(9): e7093. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007093. [DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0007093] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
56. Mori Y, Notomi T. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP): A rapid, accurate, and cost-effective diagnostic method for infectious diseases.J Infect Chemother. 2009;15(2):62-9. doi:10.1007/s10156-009-0669-9. [DOI:10.1007/s10156-009-0669-9] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
57. Toyokawa T, Ohnishi M, Koizumi N. Diagnosis of acute leptospirosis. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2011; 9(1): 111-21. doi:10.1586/eri.10.151. [DOI:10.1586/eri.10.151] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
58. Goris MG, Hartskeerl RA. Leptospirosis serodiagnosis by the microscopic agglutination test. Curr Protoc Microbiol. 2014; 32:Unit 12E 5. doi:10.1002/9780471729259.mc12e05s32. [DOI:10.1002/9780471729259.mc12e05s32] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
59. Wong-Ekkabut J, Chadsuthi S, Triampo W, Doungchawee G, Triampo D, Krittanai C. Leptospirosis research: Response of pathogenic spirochete to ultaviolet-A irradiation. Afr JBiotechnol. 2009; 8(14): 3341-52. [Google Scholar]
60. Yasouri SR, Moghadam RG, Ghane M. Identification of pathogenic and saprophytic leptospira spp from the rice fields of Tonekabon township using PCR technique. Adv Stud Biol. 2013; 5: 437-45. doi:10.12988/asb.2013.3830. [DOI:10.12988/asb.2013.3830] [Google Scholar]
61. Ciceroni L, Stepan E, Pinto A, Pizzocaro P, Dettori G, Franzin L, et al. Epidemiological trend of human leptospirosis in Italy between 1994 and 1996. Eur J Epidemiol. 2000; 16(1): 79-86. doi:10.1023/a:1007658607963. [DOI:10.1023/A:1007658607963] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
62. Vahedi Noori N, Vandyousefi J, Khorsand N. A study of incidence of Leptospira interrogans antibodies in the suspicious cow flocks Mazandaran province. Res Constr. 2002; 15(1): 13-5. [Persian] [Google Scholar]
63. Ebrahimi A, Alijani L, Abdollahpour GR. Serological survey of human leptospirosis in tribal area of West Central Iran. Iran J Med Sci. 2003; 28(2): 93-5. [Google Scholar]
64. Natarajaseenivasan K, Ratnam S. Seroprevalence of leptospiral infection in an agricultural based village in Tamil Nadu. Cheiron. 1997; 26: 80-3. [Google Scholar]
65. Ko AI, Reis MG, Dourado CMR, Johnson WD, Riley LW. Urban epidemic of severe leptospirosis in Brazil. Salvador Leptospirosis Study Group. Lancet. 1999; 354(9181): 820-5. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(99)80012-9. [DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(99)80012-9] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
66. Fakheri H, Makhlough A, Kashi Z. Acute pancreatitis in severe leptospirosis infection. J Mazandaran Univ Med Sci. 2008; 18(66): 92-7. [Persian] [Google Scholar]
67. Plank R, Dean D. Overview of the epidemiology, microbiology, and pathogenesis of Leptospira spp. in humans. Microbes Infect. 2000; 2(10): 1265-76. doi:10.1016/S1286-4579(00)01280-6. Microbes Infect. 2000; 2(10): 1265-76.doi: 10.1016/s1286-4579(00)01280-6. [DOI:10.1016/S1286-4579(00)01280-6] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
68. Wald B, Kasper F. Harrison principle of internal medicne. 16th ed. Braun Wald Funcimd. 2005; 988-91. [Google Scholar]
69. Zakeri S, Sepahian N, Afsharpad M, Esfandiari B, Ziapour P, Djadid ND. Molecular epidemiology of leptospirosis in northern Iran by nested polymerase chain reaction/restriction fragment length polymorphism and sequencing methods. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2010;82(5):899-903. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.2010.09-0721. [DOI:10.4269/ajtmh.2010.09-0721] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Rights and permissions
Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.